Look at Pictures in the Book!
Communication in the Nervous System
* Behavior depends on rapid information processing
Nervous Tissue: Basic Hardware
* Cells in the nervous system fall into 2 major categories: glia and neurons
* Glia- cells in the nervous system providing structural support, nourishment, and insulation for neurons, maintains chemical environment
-Promote efficient signaling in nervous system
* Neurons: Individual cells in nervous system that recieve, integrate and transmit info.
* Soma- cell body, contains cell nucleus and machinery common to most cells
* Dentrites- look like tree branches, parts of a neuron specialized to recieve info
* Axon- long, thin fiber (like my... never mind) that transmits signals away from soma to other neurons/muscles/glands
* Myelin sheath- insulating material, derived from glial cells , encases axons
- Multiple Sclerosis is due to the degeneration of myelin sheaths
* Terminal Buttons- small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters
- Neurotransmitters are like messengers
* Synapse- where neurons interconnect and where info is tranmitted from one neuron to another yo.
so here's a freaking summary, bro: Info goes from.... Dendtrites-> soma-> axon-> other dendtrites-> synapses
* some neurons have no axons other have a lot (like some people are smart and other are really stupid to the point where they shouldn't be allowed to breed)
* Glia- cells in the nervous system providing structural support, nourishment, and insulation for neurons, maintains chemical environment
-Promote efficient signaling in nervous system
* Neurons: Individual cells in nervous system that recieve, integrate and transmit info.
* Soma- cell body, contains cell nucleus and machinery common to most cells
* Dentrites- look like tree branches, parts of a neuron specialized to recieve info
* Axon- long, thin fiber (like my... never mind) that transmits signals away from soma to other neurons/muscles/glands
* Myelin sheath- insulating material, derived from glial cells , encases axons
- Multiple Sclerosis is due to the degeneration of myelin sheaths
* Terminal Buttons- small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters
- Neurotransmitters are like messengers
* Synapse- where neurons interconnect and where info is tranmitted from one neuron to another yo.
so here's a freaking summary, bro: Info goes from.... Dendtrites-> soma-> axon-> other dendtrites-> synapses
* some neurons have no axons other have a lot (like some people are smart and other are really stupid to the point where they shouldn't be allowed to breed)
Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Info
* Neural impulse- nature of signal
Neuron at Rest: a Tiny Battery
* inside and outside of neurons there are ions (electrically charged molecules.. just in case you didn't take a science class)
* Resulting voltage-> neuron at rest = a tiny battery (and i mean a tiny battery one that won't even power a tiny lightbulb.. well maybe)
* Resting potential- stable negative charge when cell is inactive
Action Potential
* When neuron is simulated, cell membrane opens allowing sodium ions to rush in (hot ;))
* action potential- brief change in neuron electric charge that travels along an axon
- after action potential happens cell membrane closes
- need to wait until it's able to open again
* absolute refractory period- minimum length of time after action potential until another one can begin
* relative refractory period- neuron can fire but firing threshhold is elevated, more intense simulation is needed
All or None Law
* neuron fires or doesn't (can't half fire.. just like you can't be sort of pregnant, you either are or aren't)
-weaker stimuli doesn't produce small action potentials, but stronger stimuli will fire more rapidly than weaker ones will
Neuron at Rest: a Tiny Battery
* inside and outside of neurons there are ions (electrically charged molecules.. just in case you didn't take a science class)
* Resulting voltage-> neuron at rest = a tiny battery (and i mean a tiny battery one that won't even power a tiny lightbulb.. well maybe)
* Resting potential- stable negative charge when cell is inactive
Action Potential
* When neuron is simulated, cell membrane opens allowing sodium ions to rush in (hot ;))
* action potential- brief change in neuron electric charge that travels along an axon
- after action potential happens cell membrane closes
- need to wait until it's able to open again
* absolute refractory period- minimum length of time after action potential until another one can begin
* relative refractory period- neuron can fire but firing threshhold is elevated, more intense simulation is needed
All or None Law
* neuron fires or doesn't (can't half fire.. just like you can't be sort of pregnant, you either are or aren't)
-weaker stimuli doesn't produce small action potentials, but stronger stimuli will fire more rapidly than weaker ones will
Synapse Where Neurons meet
Sending Signals: Chemicals as Couriers
* synaptic cleft: microscopic gap between terminal button of a neuron and cell membrane of the other
* neurotransmitter- chemicals that transmit info from one neuron to another
* Synaptic vescicles- where neurotrans. are stores
* Neurotrans. released when cescicle fuses with a membrane
soooooo.....
presynaptic cleft-> synaptic cleft-> membrane
Recieving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials
* Post synaptic potential (PSP)- voltage change at receptor site on a post synaptic cell membrane
- doesn't follow all or none law
-vary and size and increase/ decrease probability of neural impulse
* 2 types of messages sent form cell to cell: (no, and not text messages and picture messages)
1. Excitory psp- likelyhood that post synaptic neuron will fire action potentials (they're excited to fire!)
2. inhibatory psp- negative volatage change shift that decreases likelyhood of firing action potentials
* reuptake- process when neurotrans. are sponged up from synaptic cleft to synaptic membrane
Integrating Signals: Neural Networks
*Neuron has to integrate signals arriving before it decides to fire a neural impulse
* Nervous system makes more synapses than needed and it gradually elimainates them, that is called synaptic pruning children.
* synaptic cleft: microscopic gap between terminal button of a neuron and cell membrane of the other
* neurotransmitter- chemicals that transmit info from one neuron to another
* Synaptic vescicles- where neurotrans. are stores
* Neurotrans. released when cescicle fuses with a membrane
soooooo.....
presynaptic cleft-> synaptic cleft-> membrane
Recieving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials
* Post synaptic potential (PSP)- voltage change at receptor site on a post synaptic cell membrane
- doesn't follow all or none law
-vary and size and increase/ decrease probability of neural impulse
* 2 types of messages sent form cell to cell: (no, and not text messages and picture messages)
1. Excitory psp- likelyhood that post synaptic neuron will fire action potentials (they're excited to fire!)
2. inhibatory psp- negative volatage change shift that decreases likelyhood of firing action potentials
* reuptake- process when neurotrans. are sponged up from synaptic cleft to synaptic membrane
Integrating Signals: Neural Networks
*Neuron has to integrate signals arriving before it decides to fire a neural impulse
* Nervous system makes more synapses than needed and it gradually elimainates them, that is called synaptic pruning children.
Neurotransmitters and Behavior
* Neurotransmitters are important in playing a key role in behavior (controls muscles to moods to mental health)
*there are nine classic transmitters plus 40 more neuropeptide chems that work partime (like the job i need) and there are some newly discovered ones too
*transmitters can't bind to just ANY synaptic membran (it's like finding a key to a lock) (also it's just how you can't marry a 40 year old man when you're only 16)
Acetylcholine
* Acetylcholine- aka ACh controls motor movement (feeling self-concious?)
- contributes to arousal (sexy), attention (liuke to how sexy I am) and memory (like remembering how sexy I looks all the time haha)
* can sometimes be "fooled" by other chemicals like when you smoke nicotine acts like ACh
* agonist- chem that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
*antagonist- chem that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
- occupies receptor sites, making then unusable
- in the case of ACh can make you paralyzed
Monoamines
* monoamines have 3 neurotrans.
1. dopamine- controls voluntary movement
- lack of dopamine causes parkinsonism
- lack of dopamine activity causes schizophrenia
2. Serotonin- regulates sleep and wakefulness and eating behaviors
3. Norepinephrine (NE) - has something to do with the heart according to wikipedia but the books didn't tell me shit
- lack of activity at serotonin and NE synapses cause depression
GABA
* consists of amino acids
* Gamma- amino butynic acid (GABA) and glycine only make inhibatory psps
- others make both like ACh and NE
* Gaba receptors are all over the brain and may be found in 40% of all synapses
* Gaba contributes to the regulation of anxiety and expression of seizures
Endorphins
* morphine binds to special receptors in the brain (reffering to the drug)
* endorphins- internally produced chems that resemble opiates in structure and effects
- resembles morphine, basically
- contributes to the modulation of pain, and some other shit not specified in the book
*there are nine classic transmitters plus 40 more neuropeptide chems that work partime (like the job i need) and there are some newly discovered ones too
*transmitters can't bind to just ANY synaptic membran (it's like finding a key to a lock) (also it's just how you can't marry a 40 year old man when you're only 16)
Acetylcholine
* Acetylcholine- aka ACh controls motor movement (feeling self-concious?)
- contributes to arousal (sexy), attention (liuke to how sexy I am) and memory (like remembering how sexy I looks all the time haha)
* can sometimes be "fooled" by other chemicals like when you smoke nicotine acts like ACh
* agonist- chem that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
*antagonist- chem that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
- occupies receptor sites, making then unusable
- in the case of ACh can make you paralyzed
Monoamines
* monoamines have 3 neurotrans.
1. dopamine- controls voluntary movement
- lack of dopamine causes parkinsonism
- lack of dopamine activity causes schizophrenia
2. Serotonin- regulates sleep and wakefulness and eating behaviors
3. Norepinephrine (NE) - has something to do with the heart according to wikipedia but the books didn't tell me shit
- lack of activity at serotonin and NE synapses cause depression
GABA
* consists of amino acids
* Gamma- amino butynic acid (GABA) and glycine only make inhibatory psps
- others make both like ACh and NE
* Gaba receptors are all over the brain and may be found in 40% of all synapses
* Gaba contributes to the regulation of anxiety and expression of seizures
Endorphins
* morphine binds to special receptors in the brain (reffering to the drug)
* endorphins- internally produced chems that resemble opiates in structure and effects
- resembles morphine, basically
- contributes to the modulation of pain, and some other shit not specified in the book
Organization of the Nervous System
* you use your whole brain not just 10% because that's bullshit
The Peripheral Nervous System
*Central nervous system (CNS)- consists of brain and spinal cord
* Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (hehehe) - concsists of nerves outside of brain and spinal cord
* Nerves- Bundles of axons that are routed together in the PNS
* Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (hehehe) - concsists of nerves outside of brain and spinal cord
* Nerves- Bundles of axons that are routed together in the PNS
Somatic Nervous System
* Somatic Nervous System- nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and sensory receptors
- Carry info. from receptors in skin, muscles, and joints to CNS the goes to muscles
- Afferent- Incoming lanes (to brain)
- Efferent- outgoing lanes
- Carry info. from receptors in skin, muscles, and joints to CNS the goes to muscles
- Afferent- Incoming lanes (to brain)
- Efferent- outgoing lanes
Autonomic Nervous System
* Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)- nerves that connect to heart, blood vessels, smooth, muscles, and glands (involuntary things, bro, y'know AUTOMATIC things)
- mediates physiological arousal when people feel emotion (sexy.)
* Walter Cannon- discovered fight-or-flight response
- Fight or flight response- people respnd to threats by either fighting back (fight) or going away (flight)
*Sympathetic Division- branch of ANS that mobilizes body's resources for emergencies
- creates fight or flight response
* Parasympathetic division- branch of ANS that conserves bodily resources
- saves and stores energy
- mediates physiological arousal when people feel emotion (sexy.)
* Walter Cannon- discovered fight-or-flight response
- Fight or flight response- people respnd to threats by either fighting back (fight) or going away (flight)
*Sympathetic Division- branch of ANS that mobilizes body's resources for emergencies
- creates fight or flight response
* Parasympathetic division- branch of ANS that conserves bodily resources
- saves and stores energy
Spinal Cord
* Spinal cord- connects brain to rest of body through PNS
- Spinal cord is extension of brain
- Spinal cord is extension of brain
The Brain
* Contains billions of interacting cells
* you already know this crap.. use commons sense
* you already know this crap.. use commons sense
Research Methods
* structure of the brain can be mapped out by dissecting animals and deceased humans who donate their bodies to science (a zombie's heaven)
* Brain function mapping needs a working brain though
- how do we do it then??? ( WE'LL SEE IMPACIENT STUDENT!)
* Neuroscientists- an investigator who conducts research on brain and nervous system
* Brain function mapping needs a working brain though
- how do we do it then??? ( WE'LL SEE IMPACIENT STUDENT!)
* Neuroscientists- an investigator who conducts research on brain and nervous system
Electrical Recording
* you can record electric activity in the brain just like you can with 1 neuron
* Electroencephalograph (EEG)- device that monitors electric activity of the brain over time by attaching electrodes on your scalp (for x-men nerds, it's like an underdeveloped Cerebro)
- 6-10 electrodes are attached usually
- brainwaves - what EEG recordings are translated into, provide useful overview of brain
- used in clincal diagnosis of brain damage and neurological disorders
* Electroencephalograph (EEG)- device that monitors electric activity of the brain over time by attaching electrodes on your scalp (for x-men nerds, it's like an underdeveloped Cerebro)
- 6-10 electrodes are attached usually
- brainwaves - what EEG recordings are translated into, provide useful overview of brain
- used in clincal diagnosis of brain damage and neurological disorders
Lesioning
* scientists observe peeps with strokes and stuff that damaged their brains
* patients usually have a shit load of extraneous variables, though, and it's hard to isolate them
* Lesioning - destroying a peice of the brain (i think they try to make a normal activity show up)
- involves burying an electrode inside your brain (agh)
* patients usually have a shit load of extraneous variables, though, and it's hard to isolate them
* Lesioning - destroying a peice of the brain (i think they try to make a normal activity show up)
- involves burying an electrode inside your brain (agh)
Electric Stimulation of the Brain
* Electric Stimulation of Brain (ESB)- involves sending weak electric currents to the brain to stimulate it
* like lesioning but no want to duplicate normal behavior
- usually used on animals
- used on humans only for medical reasons and rarely
* like lesioning but no want to duplicate normal behavior
- usually used on animals
- used on humans only for medical reasons and rarely
Brain Imaging Procedures
* CT scan- computer enhanced x-ray of brain structure
- multiple x-rays from may angles
- least expensive and the most used
- shows brain structure
* PET scan- used when researching brain and behavior patterns
- examines function
- also can be used to study neurotrans.
* MRI scan- uses magnetic feilds, radiowaves, and computer something
- provides a better image than CT scans
* functional MRI (fMRI) - can monitor blood and oxygen flow in brain while doing what an MRI does
- provides structural and functional info
- multiple x-rays from may angles
- least expensive and the most used
- shows brain structure
* PET scan- used when researching brain and behavior patterns
- examines function
- also can be used to study neurotrans.
* MRI scan- uses magnetic feilds, radiowaves, and computer something
- provides a better image than CT scans
* functional MRI (fMRI) - can monitor blood and oxygen flow in brain while doing what an MRI does
- provides structural and functional info
The Brain and Behavior
* Brain is divided into 3 parts:
1. hindbrain
2. midbrain
3. forebrain
*Brainstem: Stem of brain, low end is into spinal cord, high end is inside middle of brain
1. hindbrain
2. midbrain
3. forebrain
*Brainstem: Stem of brain, low end is into spinal cord, high end is inside middle of brain
The Hindbrain
* Hindbrain- has cerebellum and 2 other strcutures found in lower part of brainstem
1. Medulla- attached to spinal cord, incharge of involuntary functions such as:
- Circulating blood
- Breathing (self concious yet?)
- maintenance of muscle tone
-reflex regulation (sneexing, coughing, salivation)
2. Pons- bridge of fibers that connects brainstem with cerebellum
- contains cells involved with sleep and arousal
3. Cerebellum- large, deeply folded structure located next to back surface of brainstem
- critical to coordination of movement and sense of equilibrium (balance)
1. Medulla- attached to spinal cord, incharge of involuntary functions such as:
- Circulating blood
- Breathing (self concious yet?)
- maintenance of muscle tone
-reflex regulation (sneexing, coughing, salivation)
2. Pons- bridge of fibers that connects brainstem with cerebellum
- contains cells involved with sleep and arousal
3. Cerebellum- large, deeply folded structure located next to back surface of brainstem
- critical to coordination of movement and sense of equilibrium (balance)
Midbrain
* Midbrain- segment of brainstem that's between hindbrain and forebrain
* Controls vision and hearing
* dopamine releasing neurons originate here
* reticular formation- located at central core of brainstem
-contributes to modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception
* Controls vision and hearing
* dopamine releasing neurons originate here
* reticular formation- located at central core of brainstem
-contributes to modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception
The Forebrain (get ready for information to the MAX)
* Forebrain- largest and most complex part of brain has thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebellum
The Thalamus: Way Station
* Thalamus- where all your senses (minus smell) must pass through to get to cerebral cortex
- made up of cell bodies
- integrates information from various stations
Hypothalamus: Regulator of Biological Needs
* Hypothalamus- near base of forebrain involved in regulation of biological needs
-under thalamus
- controls ANS
- link between brain and endocrine system
- plays major role in 4 F's
1. Fighting
2. Fleeing
3. Feeding
4. Mating (we all know they meant F***ing)
Limbic System: seat of emotion
* Limbic system: loosely connected network of structures located roughly along border between cerebral cortex and deeper subcortal areas
- actual structures included in limbic system is disputed over
- contains parts of: thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus
- involved in regulation of emotion, memory and motivation
* hippocampus region controls memory but scientists aren't for sure
* medial forebrain bundle (of axons)- passes trough hypothalamus, has dopamine releasing neurons
Cerebrum: seat of complex thought
* Cerebrum: largest and most complex part of brain has brain areas responsible for learning and remembering and thinking and concious self
* Cerebral Cortex- conculated out layer of cerebellum
- has surface area of 1.5 ft and it's all compacted in your skull.
* cerebral hemispheres- right and left halves of cerebrum
- seperated by a fissure called corpus callosum
* Lobes- cerebral hemisperes divided into 4 parts called lobes
* occipital lobe- back of head, has cortical area where vision signals are sent to
- Primary visual cortex- cortical area
* parietal lobe- in front of occipital lobe
- contains primary somatosensory cortex- area that registers touch
* temporal lobe- below parietal lobe (close to your TEMPLES)
- has primary auditory cortex- are for hearing shit
* frontal lobe- largest lobe... up front
-has primary motor cortex- controls movements
a. more of this cortex is goven to places with fine motor movemets are needs (lips, tongue, fingers) and larger things (arms, legs) get less of this cortex
* prefrontal cortex- in front of motor cortex is abnormally large w/o a known function
- believed to control higher order functions such as memory and processing of current info
The Thalamus: Way Station
* Thalamus- where all your senses (minus smell) must pass through to get to cerebral cortex
- made up of cell bodies
- integrates information from various stations
Hypothalamus: Regulator of Biological Needs
* Hypothalamus- near base of forebrain involved in regulation of biological needs
-under thalamus
- controls ANS
- link between brain and endocrine system
- plays major role in 4 F's
1. Fighting
2. Fleeing
3. Feeding
4. Mating (we all know they meant F***ing)
Limbic System: seat of emotion
* Limbic system: loosely connected network of structures located roughly along border between cerebral cortex and deeper subcortal areas
- actual structures included in limbic system is disputed over
- contains parts of: thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus
- involved in regulation of emotion, memory and motivation
* hippocampus region controls memory but scientists aren't for sure
* medial forebrain bundle (of axons)- passes trough hypothalamus, has dopamine releasing neurons
Cerebrum: seat of complex thought
* Cerebrum: largest and most complex part of brain has brain areas responsible for learning and remembering and thinking and concious self
* Cerebral Cortex- conculated out layer of cerebellum
- has surface area of 1.5 ft and it's all compacted in your skull.
* cerebral hemispheres- right and left halves of cerebrum
- seperated by a fissure called corpus callosum
* Lobes- cerebral hemisperes divided into 4 parts called lobes
* occipital lobe- back of head, has cortical area where vision signals are sent to
- Primary visual cortex- cortical area
* parietal lobe- in front of occipital lobe
- contains primary somatosensory cortex- area that registers touch
* temporal lobe- below parietal lobe (close to your TEMPLES)
- has primary auditory cortex- are for hearing shit
* frontal lobe- largest lobe... up front
-has primary motor cortex- controls movements
a. more of this cortex is goven to places with fine motor movemets are needs (lips, tongue, fingers) and larger things (arms, legs) get less of this cortex
* prefrontal cortex- in front of motor cortex is abnormally large w/o a known function
- believed to control higher order functions such as memory and processing of current info
Plasticity of Brain
* brain is malleable and flexible- different parts of brain can be bigger due to some talents a person might have
* highly adaptive (like when amputations take place)
* adults can make new neurons
* Brain isn't hardwired like a computer
- there are limits to the plasticity though
* highly adaptive (like when amputations take place)
* adults can make new neurons
* Brain isn't hardwired like a computer
- there are limits to the plasticity though
Right Brain/ Left Brain: Cerebral Laterality
* Left and right side of brain do different things
* Paul Broca-= Treated patient that couldn'tspeak for 30 years. After death autopsy showed that part of brain was lesioned on the left side of frontal lobe
- called Broca's Area- plays role in speech PRODUCTION
* Wernicke's area- in temporal lobe of left hemisphere
- involved in comprehension of speech
* Left side of brain- "dominant hemisphere"
- involved in higher thinking (reasoning, remembering ,planning, etc)
* Right side of brain- "nondminant, dumb side
- no special abilities... at least they thought... TIL NOW (DUN DUN DUUNNNNN)
* Paul Broca-= Treated patient that couldn'tspeak for 30 years. After death autopsy showed that part of brain was lesioned on the left side of frontal lobe
- called Broca's Area- plays role in speech PRODUCTION
* Wernicke's area- in temporal lobe of left hemisphere
- involved in comprehension of speech
* Left side of brain- "dominant hemisphere"
- involved in higher thinking (reasoning, remembering ,planning, etc)
* Right side of brain- "nondminant, dumb side
- no special abilities... at least they thought... TIL NOW (DUN DUN DUUNNNNN)
Bisecting the Brain: Split-Brain Research
* Split- brain surgery- bundle of fibers that connects the cerebral hemispheres is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures
- only used as a last resort( CUT MY LIFE INTO PEICES, THIS IS MY LAST RESORT!) ahhh music
* each hemisphere's primary connections are to the opposite side of the body
- right brain controls left side of body and vice versa (using vice versa makes me feel important)
* look up Roger Sperry and Gazzoniga experiment on split brain research ( begins at p. 98)
* The experiment showed that the right side of the brain is good at:
-puzzles
- copying drawings
-artistic shtuff
-recognizing faces, arranging blocks <--- visula spatial tasks!
- only used as a last resort( CUT MY LIFE INTO PEICES, THIS IS MY LAST RESORT!) ahhh music
* each hemisphere's primary connections are to the opposite side of the body
- right brain controls left side of body and vice versa (using vice versa makes me feel important)
* look up Roger Sperry and Gazzoniga experiment on split brain research ( begins at p. 98)
* The experiment showed that the right side of the brain is good at:
-puzzles
- copying drawings
-artistic shtuff
-recognizing faces, arranging blocks <--- visula spatial tasks!
Hemispheric Specialization in the Intact Brain
* perceptual assymmetries- left-right inmbalances between the cerebral hemispheres in speed of visual or auditory processing.
- differences measured in the ammount of time it takes to respond to the task
* Left hemisphere is good at things involving verbal processing (language, speech, reading)
* Right brain is good at non-verbal stuff ( visual recognition, music, etc.)
- differences measured in the ammount of time it takes to respond to the task
* Left hemisphere is good at things involving verbal processing (language, speech, reading)
* Right brain is good at non-verbal stuff ( visual recognition, music, etc.)
The Endocrine System
* Endocrine system- consists of glands thatsecerete chems into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning
-2nd communication system of body
* hormone- chem substances released by endocrine glands
- messengers of the endocrine system
* some hormones act like hormones in endocrine system and like neurotrans. in nervous system
* difference between neurotrans. and hormones
- neurotrans.- transitted in short distances in lightening speed, along specific pathways
- hormones- longer distances and slower, less specific pathways
* some hormones released in response to changing conditions in body to regulate it (ahem..... periods, puberty, etc. shit...)
* hormone release is pulsatile
-pulsatile- hormones being released several times per day in brief bursts and last only a couple minutes. (like.... lovemaking)
* pituitary gland- part of brain releasing a variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulatiing actions in other glands
* negative feedback systems- when a hormone increases to a certain level, signals are sent to hypothalamus/other relevant glands to reduce/stop further secretion of hormone
-2nd communication system of body
* hormone- chem substances released by endocrine glands
- messengers of the endocrine system
* some hormones act like hormones in endocrine system and like neurotrans. in nervous system
* difference between neurotrans. and hormones
- neurotrans.- transitted in short distances in lightening speed, along specific pathways
- hormones- longer distances and slower, less specific pathways
* some hormones released in response to changing conditions in body to regulate it (ahem..... periods, puberty, etc. shit...)
* hormone release is pulsatile
-pulsatile- hormones being released several times per day in brief bursts and last only a couple minutes. (like.... lovemaking)
* pituitary gland- part of brain releasing a variety of hormones that fan out around the body, stimulatiing actions in other glands
* negative feedback systems- when a hormone increases to a certain level, signals are sent to hypothalamus/other relevant glands to reduce/stop further secretion of hormone
Heredity and Behavior: Is It All in the Genes?
* Behavioral genetics- interdisciplinary field that studies influence of genetic factors on behavioral traits
Basic Principles of Genetics
* every cell in body contains messages from mommy and daddy <--- found on chromosomes! (HOW EXCITING!)
Chromosomes and Genes
* Chromosomes- strands onf DNA molecules that carry genetic info.
* Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell except in sex cells (they have 23, also I was about to type sex sells...)
* zygote- single cells formed by the union of sperm and egg (true love...)
* Genes- DNA segments that serve as key functional units in hereditary transmission
* around 70 trillion possibilities on how your baby can look (WOAHHHHH)
* homozygous- 2 genes in specific pair are the SAME
* heterozygous- 2 genes in pair are DIFFERENT
* dominant gene- gene expressed when the genes are different (or heterozygous)
* recessive gene- gene not expressed when the genes are different
Genotype vs. Phenotype
* genotype- person's genetic make-up (heterozygous brown eye or homozygous?)
* phenotype- person's is manifested in observable characteristics (blue eyes)
Polygenic Inheritance
* polygenic traits- chracteristics that are influenced by more than 1 pair of genes
- i.e. like how 3-5 gene pairs determine
Chromosomes and Genes
* Chromosomes- strands onf DNA molecules that carry genetic info.
* Humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell except in sex cells (they have 23, also I was about to type sex sells...)
* zygote- single cells formed by the union of sperm and egg (true love...)
* Genes- DNA segments that serve as key functional units in hereditary transmission
* around 70 trillion possibilities on how your baby can look (WOAHHHHH)
* homozygous- 2 genes in specific pair are the SAME
* heterozygous- 2 genes in pair are DIFFERENT
* dominant gene- gene expressed when the genes are different (or heterozygous)
* recessive gene- gene not expressed when the genes are different
Genotype vs. Phenotype
* genotype- person's genetic make-up (heterozygous brown eye or homozygous?)
* phenotype- person's is manifested in observable characteristics (blue eyes)
Polygenic Inheritance
* polygenic traits- chracteristics that are influenced by more than 1 pair of genes
- i.e. like how 3-5 gene pairs determine
Investigating Hereditary Influence: Research Methods
* they use correlational methods on humans
- because forcing 2 people to marry eachother is illegal....
* there are 3 wonderful studies of studying!
1. Family Studies
- researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other
- should find phenotypic similarity as they are more closely related the more they are to look alike (like all the weasleys!)
- studied schizophrenia risk like this
- can backfire because closer relatives share same environment and distant ones don't
2. Twin Studies
- researcher assess hereditary influence by comparing resemblance of identical and fraternal twins w/ respect to a trait
- identical twins come when 2 eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells making 2 zygotes
- works well b/c twins grow up in the same environment
- since identicals twins are made from the same genes, if identical twins do something more similiar than fraternal twins, it's probably hereditary
3. Adoption studies
- asses hereditary influence by examining resemblance between adopted kids and their adoptive and biological parents
- if biological parent and adopted kid do something similarly--> IT'S GENES!
- if adoptive parent and adopted kid do something similarly --> IT'S ENVIRONMENT!
The Cutting Edge: Genetic Mapping
* Genetic Mapping- process of determining location and chem sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes
- Humane Genome Project is on it (not Music Genome Project... that's Pandora)
* Gene Maps don't tell which gene governs which trait by self
- because forcing 2 people to marry eachother is illegal....
* there are 3 wonderful studies of studying!
1. Family Studies
- researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble each other
- should find phenotypic similarity as they are more closely related the more they are to look alike (like all the weasleys!)
- studied schizophrenia risk like this
- can backfire because closer relatives share same environment and distant ones don't
2. Twin Studies
- researcher assess hereditary influence by comparing resemblance of identical and fraternal twins w/ respect to a trait
- identical twins come when 2 eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells making 2 zygotes
- works well b/c twins grow up in the same environment
- since identicals twins are made from the same genes, if identical twins do something more similiar than fraternal twins, it's probably hereditary
3. Adoption studies
- asses hereditary influence by examining resemblance between adopted kids and their adoptive and biological parents
- if biological parent and adopted kid do something similarly--> IT'S GENES!
- if adoptive parent and adopted kid do something similarly --> IT'S ENVIRONMENT!
The Cutting Edge: Genetic Mapping
* Genetic Mapping- process of determining location and chem sequence of specific genes on specific chromosomes
- Humane Genome Project is on it (not Music Genome Project... that's Pandora)
* Gene Maps don't tell which gene governs which trait by self
Evolutionary Bases of Behavior
* see ch.1 about evolutionary psychology
Darwin's Insights
* There were scientists before Darwin to think of evolution
* BUT Darwin wrote a book about it and now he's famous
- Origin of Species- book that explains how evolution changes over time
- Natural Selection- Mechanism that orchestrates evolution --> when you're like, "hey, you're hot , let's reproduce and make the trait that makes you hot abundant!"
* Natural Selection tends to be adaptive
* Darwin noted evolution in 3 ways:
1. organisms vary in size, speed, color, strength, etc.
2. some of the above chracteristics are heritable!
- back then no one knew about chromosomes but they had the concept down.
3. organisms make babies alot--> more than the resources we have
4. if a specific trait contributes to survival then ones w/o trait will die of and ones w/ trait will have lots of babies (survival of the fittest)
* Fitness- reproductive success ( # of descendants) of an individual organism relative to average reproductive success in population
- variation of this fuels evolutionary change
* 2 ways evolutionary change can be made:
1. survival advantage
2. Reproductive advantage (or in human: SEX APPEAL)
* BUT Darwin wrote a book about it and now he's famous
- Origin of Species- book that explains how evolution changes over time
- Natural Selection- Mechanism that orchestrates evolution --> when you're like, "hey, you're hot , let's reproduce and make the trait that makes you hot abundant!"
* Natural Selection tends to be adaptive
* Darwin noted evolution in 3 ways:
1. organisms vary in size, speed, color, strength, etc.
2. some of the above chracteristics are heritable!
- back then no one knew about chromosomes but they had the concept down.
3. organisms make babies alot--> more than the resources we have
4. if a specific trait contributes to survival then ones w/o trait will die of and ones w/ trait will have lots of babies (survival of the fittest)
* Fitness- reproductive success ( # of descendants) of an individual organism relative to average reproductive success in population
- variation of this fuels evolutionary change
* 2 ways evolutionary change can be made:
1. survival advantage
2. Reproductive advantage (or in human: SEX APPEAL)
Subsequent Refinements to Evolutionary Theory
* Mendel does his punnet squares and shit
* Genetic Drift- random fluctuation in gene frequencies over generations
* Gene Flow- gene frequencies in population shift b/c some individuals leave it and some enter it
* adaptation- really guys? do I have to define this for you?
* inclusive fitness- sum of an individuals own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on reproductive success of related others
- this is why parents will sacrifice their own lives for their kid
* Genetic Drift- random fluctuation in gene frequencies over generations
* Gene Flow- gene frequencies in population shift b/c some individuals leave it and some enter it
* adaptation- really guys? do I have to define this for you?
* inclusive fitness- sum of an individuals own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on reproductive success of related others
- this is why parents will sacrifice their own lives for their kid
Behaviors as Adaptive Traits
* Genes contribute to behavioral traits too!
- they're harder to track though
* examples:
- rats are super cautionary when they eat new food
- camoflauge
- Stotting (look it up)
- they're harder to track though
* examples:
- rats are super cautionary when they eat new food
- camoflauge
- Stotting (look it up)
Parental Investment and Mating Systems
* Parental investment- what each sex has to invest (in terms of line, energy, survival risks) to produce and nurture offspring
- sex that makes smaller investment will compete for sex w/ larger investment, and sex with larger investment will choose only one
* Polygyny- (Think polygamy) males mate with more females and females have only 1 mate
* Polyandry- where female mates with more males and male has only 1 female (rare, like reverse polygyny)
* Monogamy- 1 male per female, parental investment is equal here.
- sex that makes smaller investment will compete for sex w/ larger investment, and sex with larger investment will choose only one
* Polygyny- (Think polygamy) males mate with more females and females have only 1 mate
* Polyandry- where female mates with more males and male has only 1 female (rare, like reverse polygyny)
* Monogamy- 1 male per female, parental investment is equal here.