Looking for Laws: The Scientific Approach to Behavior
* Scientific Approach assumes that events are governed in lawful order
Goals of the Scientific Enterprise
* There are 3 sets of goals: (more like 6 but the author of this book can't count)
1. Measurement and Description- investigator figures out a way to measure phenomena (ooh sciency) under study. Why? -> to be able to describe behavior more clearly.
2. Understanding and Prediction- Be able to explain reasons for occurence. Why -> to evaluate understanding
- scientists create hypotheseseseses
- Variable- measurable condition; events, choice, behaviors that are controlled/ observed in a study.
3. Application and Control- Once understood, scientists want to exert control. (-scoff- wannabe dictators) Why? -> it attempts to apply research
1. Measurement and Description- investigator figures out a way to measure phenomena (ooh sciency) under study. Why? -> to be able to describe behavior more clearly.
2. Understanding and Prediction- Be able to explain reasons for occurence. Why -> to evaluate understanding
- scientists create hypotheseseseses
- Variable- measurable condition; events, choice, behaviors that are controlled/ observed in a study.
3. Application and Control- Once understood, scientists want to exert control. (-scoff- wannabe dictators) Why? -> it attempts to apply research
Steps in a Scientific Investigation
1. Formulate a testable hypothesis. (no you can't test why hitler was a screwball. why? because HE'S DEAD)
- Operational Definition- actions/ operations that will be used to measure or control a variable
2. Select reasearch method and design the study
- Methods include: experiments, case studies, surveys, observation (legal stalking?), etc.
- Participants or subjects are people or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.
3. Collect the data
- Data collection techniques - procedures for making empirical observations and measurements
4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
5. Report the findings
- Journal- periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry
- Operational Definition- actions/ operations that will be used to measure or control a variable
2. Select reasearch method and design the study
- Methods include: experiments, case studies, surveys, observation (legal stalking?), etc.
- Participants or subjects are people or animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study.
3. Collect the data
- Data collection techniques - procedures for making empirical observations and measurements
4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
5. Report the findings
- Journal- periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry
Advantages of the Scientific Approach
* scientific approach offers clarity and precision
* offers intolerance of error ( scientists are errorists.. get it racist/sexist?)
* offers intolerance of error ( scientists are errorists.. get it racist/sexist?)
Looking for Causes: Experimental Research
* need for affiliation- when people feel anxious, they want other people around them.
Independent and Dependent Variables
* Independent Variable- examiner varies this factor
* Dependent Variable- what is affected by independent variable
* Dependent Variable- what is affected by independent variable
Experimental and Control Groups
* Experimental and control groups should be identical except for the independent variable
* Experimental group- has the independent variable on it
* Control group- doesn't have the indepent variable on it. (it went au naturel!)
* Experimental group- has the independent variable on it
* Control group- doesn't have the indepent variable on it. (it went au naturel!)
Extraneous Variable
* Extraneous Variable- any variables other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable in a study
* Confounding of variables- when 2 variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specifics
* Confounding of variables- when 2 variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specifics
Variations in Designing Experiments
* Advantageous to use only one group of subjects who serve as their own control group
* 2 different conditions: experimental and control
* it's possible to manipulate more than 1 independent variable in a single experiment (ohh snap)
* It's possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single study
* 2 different conditions: experimental and control
* it's possible to manipulate more than 1 independent variable in a single experiment (ohh snap)
* It's possible to use more than one dependent variable in a single study
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research
* Advantage: permits conclusions about cause and effect relationships
* Disadvantage- Experiments are often artificial
(wow really only 2.. ain't that some shit?)
* Disadvantage- Experiments are often artificial
(wow really only 2.. ain't that some shit?)
Looking for Links: Desriptive/Correlational Research
* Descriptive/Correlational methods permits investigators to only describe patterns of behavior and discover links/ assoc. between variables
Naturalistic Observation
* Naturalistic Observation- researcher engages in a careful obs. of behavior w/o intervening directly w/ subjects (so stalking)
* Behavior allowed to unfold naturally
* Behavior allowed to unfold naturally
Case Studies
* Case Study- in depth investigation of individual subject
- when used on victims of suicide it's called a psychological autopsy
* Typically involves investigators analyzing a collection of case studies to look for patterns that permit general conclusions
- when used on victims of suicide it's called a psychological autopsy
* Typically involves investigators analyzing a collection of case studies to look for patterns that permit general conclusions
Surveys
* Researchers use questionairres (sp?)
- they depend on wself reported data.. accuracy can be interfered with wishful thinking, memory lapses, and poorly worded questions.
- they depend on wself reported data.. accuracy can be interfered with wishful thinking, memory lapses, and poorly worded questions.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research
* Advantages:
- Methods give researchers a way to explore questions that can't be examined by experiments
- broadens scope of phenomena that psychs are able to study =D
* Disadvantage:
-Can't control events to isolate cause and effect
- Methods give researchers a way to explore questions that can't be examined by experiments
- broadens scope of phenomena that psychs are able to study =D
* Disadvantage:
-Can't control events to isolate cause and effect
Looking for Conclusions: Statistics and Research
* Statistics- Use of math to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data (ew numbers)
-Used to make things make sense
-Used to make things make sense
Descriptive Statistics
* Used to organize and summarize data and to provide overview of numerical data
Central Tendency
* researchers often use median, mean, and mode
-usually use mean most
-they use others when there's like a ridiculous outlier (my body picked a bad time to get the munchies.. just letting you all know)
-usually use mean most
-they use others when there's like a ridiculous outlier (my body picked a bad time to get the munchies.. just letting you all know)
Variability
* It's useful to have variability in scores
*Variability- how much scores in a data set vary from each other from the mean
* standard deviation- index of the amount of variability in a set of data
* when varaiabilty is big so is standard deviation and vice versa
*Variability- how much scores in a data set vary from each other from the mean
* standard deviation- index of the amount of variability in a set of data
* when varaiabilty is big so is standard deviation and vice versa
Correlation
* Correlation- when 2 variables are related to each other (about time you knew what that meant after using is 20 million times)
* Correlation coefficient- numerical index of the degrees of relationship between 2 variables
-Indicates:
1. Direction of relationship- positive or negative?
2. How strongly 2 variables are related.
*Positive correlation- 2 variables co-vary in the same direction
- example: people who do well in high school do well in college
* Negative correlation- 2 variables co-vary in opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down)
-example: students with high absence get low grades on exams
* depending on the relationship, +/- sign is placed in from of coefficient (if there's no sign it's positive)
* size of coefficient indicated strength of association between variables
-coefficients vary from 0- 1.00 positive or negative
* As a correlation increases in strength the ability to predict one variable based on knowledge of the other increases
*Correlation doesn't tell us if there a cause-effect realtionship (only experiments do)
-example: as a childs foot size increases so does vocabulary (it's because of age not that random ape-shit)
* CORRELATION IS NOT EQUAL TO CAUSATION
* Correlation coefficient- numerical index of the degrees of relationship between 2 variables
-Indicates:
1. Direction of relationship- positive or negative?
2. How strongly 2 variables are related.
*Positive correlation- 2 variables co-vary in the same direction
- example: people who do well in high school do well in college
* Negative correlation- 2 variables co-vary in opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down)
-example: students with high absence get low grades on exams
* depending on the relationship, +/- sign is placed in from of coefficient (if there's no sign it's positive)
* size of coefficient indicated strength of association between variables
-coefficients vary from 0- 1.00 positive or negative
* As a correlation increases in strength the ability to predict one variable based on knowledge of the other increases
*Correlation doesn't tell us if there a cause-effect realtionship (only experiments do)
-example: as a childs foot size increases so does vocabulary (it's because of age not that random ape-shit)
* CORRELATION IS NOT EQUAL TO CAUSATION
Inferential Stats
*Inferential Statistics- used to interpret data and draw conclusions
* Statistically Significant- when results don't come by chance/ findings due to chance are low
* Scientists try to replicated data so they know their results aren't bullshit
* Statistically Significant- when results don't come by chance/ findings due to chance are low
* Scientists try to replicated data so they know their results aren't bullshit
Sampling Bias
* Sample- collection of subjects selected fo observation in an empirical study
* population- larger collection of animals/ people that researchers want to generalize about
* samples represent population
* Sampling Bias- when sample is not representative of population of which it was drawn
* population- larger collection of animals/ people that researchers want to generalize about
* samples represent population
* Sampling Bias- when sample is not representative of population of which it was drawn
Placebo Effects
* Placebo in pharmacy is a substance that looks like a drug but it has no effect
-Given to people to see how the expectations effect the results
* Placebo Effect- when participants' expectations lead them to experience change even if they recieve fake/ innefective treatment
* researchers try to guard against placebo effects
-Given to people to see how the expectations effect the results
* Placebo Effect- when participants' expectations lead them to experience change even if they recieve fake/ innefective treatment
* researchers try to guard against placebo effects
Distortions in Self- Report Data
*Self report data- subjects' verbal account of their behavior
-useful because who knows you better than yourself???
- bad b/c of 2 things:
1. Social Desirability Bias- tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
-example: interviewer: are you prejudiced? guy: no! (in head hell yeah I hate Madascarans)
2. Response set- tendency to respond to questions in a way unrelated to the content of the questions
-useful because who knows you better than yourself???
- bad b/c of 2 things:
1. Social Desirability Bias- tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
-example: interviewer: are you prejudiced? guy: no! (in head hell yeah I hate Madascarans)
2. Response set- tendency to respond to questions in a way unrelated to the content of the questions
Experimenter Bias
* Experimenter Bias- when a researcher's expectaitons/ preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained
- researchers see what the wanna see
* This can be solved by:
- Double blind procedure- research strategy where neither subjects not experimenters know which subject are in the experimental group or the control group
- researchers see what the wanna see
* This can be solved by:
- Double blind procedure- research strategy where neither subjects not experimenters know which subject are in the experimental group or the control group
Looking at Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Means?
* Scientists are filled w/ ethical dilemmas, they reflect concern about the possibility for inflicting harm on participants
* Major ethical issues: deception and use of animals
* Major ethical issues: deception and use of animals
Questions of Deception
* Used deception to reduce placebo effects and unreliability of self-reports
* Critics say deception is bad because:
1. it's just a nice word for lying
2. Psychs may undermine individuals' trust in others
3. it produces stress on unsuspecting people
* Peeps that support deception in experiments say:
1. you can't research important issues w/o misleading participants
2. White lies are used more than huge lies in experiments
3. critics just assumed deception stuffs w/o testing it
* nowadays (in modern sex crazy imma hump everything i see times) we have ethical committees
* Critics say deception is bad because:
1. it's just a nice word for lying
2. Psychs may undermine individuals' trust in others
3. it produces stress on unsuspecting people
* Peeps that support deception in experiments say:
1. you can't research important issues w/o misleading participants
2. White lies are used more than huge lies in experiments
3. critics just assumed deception stuffs w/o testing it
* nowadays (in modern sex crazy imma hump everything i see times) we have ethical committees
The Question of Animal Research
* Scientists use research methods on animals that are unnacceptable for humans
*animal cruelty and shit
* protests
*everything PETA stands for was talked about in this chapter,
*animal cruelty and shit
* protests
*everything PETA stands for was talked about in this chapter,